http://41.89.205.12/handle/123456789/172 Sat, 08 Aug 2026 02:04:44 GMT 2026-08-08T02:04:44Z http://41.89.205.12/handle/123456789/2884 Selections of Karl Heinrich Marx Views on Religion in View of Paul Nthenge Mackenzie Shakahola Cult Prof. Rev. Manya, Wandefu Stephen; Dr. Osabwa, Wycliffe The 2023 Shakahola tragedy involving Paul Nthenge Mackenzie, whose followers died through starvation in Kilifi County, Kenya, raises urgent questions about the relationship between religion, social vulnerability, and authority. This paper applies Karl Marx’s theory of religion; particularly the notion of religion as the “opium of the people” to analyze how religious belief can function simultaneously as a response to suffering and a mechanism of control. Rather than treating the case solely as an example of “cult behavior,” the study situates it within broader socio-economic conditions that make individuals susceptible to religious manipulation. In the Mackenzie situation, many people rushed to join this starving religious group claiming that it was their religious duty. Notably, Pastor Nthenge and his followers displayed quasi-religious beliefs akin to Cults. For instance, Pastor Nthenge had isolated over 200 adults and children from their friends and family and led them to the expansive Shakahola forest in Lamu, Kenya, for prayers and intensive fasting that led to death. Thus, the cultic nature of his teachings, which did not permit any scepticism or questioning lest one got punished, required inordinate sacrifices. Fasting and money from the followers were demanded, with the victims being closely controlled in a way that is not common with most conventional religious groups. Pursuant to these events, one would want to inquire on how Pastor Nthenge’s imaginary religious actions echo the selected thoughts of the 19th-century German philosopher Karl Marx’s understanding of religion. Instructively, Marx viewed religion as "the soul of soulless conditions" or the "opium of the people". Accordingly, religion in this world of exploitation is an expression of distress and at the same time a protest against the real distress as with the people proselytized by Pastor Nthenge. In other words, Marx saw religion continuing to survive because of oppressive social conditions of the people. This paper consequently examines the emerging theoretical nexus between Pastor Nthenge’s view of religion, and Marx’s perspectives on religion as the opium of the masses. Through a qualitative desk review of emerging reports and scholarly literature, the paper argues that the Shakahola phenomenon reflects both Marx’s insight into religion as an expression of distress and the dangers of its instrumentalization by charismatic leaders. The study concludes by engaging counter-arguments that emphasize religion’s positive social functions, thereby offering a balanced and critical perspective. The 2023 Shakahola tragedy involving Paul Nthenge Mackenzie, whose followers died through starvation in Kilifi County, Kenya, raises urgent questions about the relationship between religion, social vulnerability, and authority. This paper applies Karl Marx’s theory of religion; particularly the notion of religion as the “opium of the people” to analyze how religious belief can function simultaneously as a response to suffering and a mechanism of control. Rather than treating the case solely as an example of “cult behavior,” the study situates it within broader socio-economic conditions that make individuals susceptible to religious manipulation. In the Mackenzie situation, many people rushed to join this starving religious group claiming that it was their religious duty. Notably, Pastor Nthenge and his followers displayed quasi-religious beliefs akin to Cults. For instance, Pastor Nthenge had isolated over 200 adults and children from their friends and family and led them to the expansive Shakahola forest in Lamu, Kenya, for prayers and intensive fasting that led to death. Thus, the cultic nature of his teachings, which did not permit any scepticism or questioning lest one got punished, required inordinate sacrifices. Fasting and money from the followers were demanded, with the victims being closely controlled in a way that is not common with most conventional religious groups. Pursuant to these events, one would want to inquire on how Pastor Nthenge’s imaginary religious actions echo the selected thoughts of the 19th-century German philosopher Karl Marx’s understanding of religion. Instructively, Marx viewed religion as "the soul of soulless conditions" or the "opium of the people". Accordingly, religion in this world of exploitation is an expression of distress and at the same time a protest against the real distress as with the people proselytized by Pastor Nthenge. In other words, Marx saw religion continuing to survive because of oppressive social conditions of the people. This paper consequently examines the emerging theoretical nexus between Pastor Nthenge’s view of religion, and Marx’s perspectives on religion as the opium of the masses. Through a qualitative desk review of emerging reports and scholarly literature, the paper argues that the Shakahola phenomenon reflects both Marx’s insight into religion as an expression of distress and the dangers of its instrumentalization by charismatic leaders. The study concludes by engaging counter-arguments that emphasize religion’s positive social functions, thereby offering a balanced and critical perspective. Thu, 01 Jan 2026 00:00:00 GMT http://41.89.205.12/handle/123456789/2884 2026-01-01T00:00:00Z http://41.89.205.12/handle/123456789/2880 Compliments as gendered discourse among Lubukusu speakers. Wekesa, Christine K.; Barasa, Margaret N.; Mose, Peter A compliment is a speech act that explicitly or implicitly attributes credit to someone other than the speaker for some good which is positively valued. Compliments are among the most common speech acts that facilitate interaction by fostering solidarity, reducing social distance, and promoting harmony. Context plays a pivotal role in the interpretation of the role of a compliment this means that one compliment can be used as a token of appreciation in one context but in another it is interpreted as Face Threatening Act. This study investigated the role of pragmatic contexts specifically gender in the use of compliments among Lubukusu speakers in Bungoma County. The study adopted an ethnographic approach using purposive and simple random sampling to select respondents. Data was collected through field notes and audio recordings, yielding 200 naturally occurring compliments. The analysis was guided by Brown and Levinson’s Politeness and Austin’s Speech Act theories. Findings revealed that Lubukusu compliments relied on a restricted set of lexical items with adjectives being the most dominant followed by adverbs, nouns and verbs. The study also noted that women tended to use longer and more elaborate compliment structures compared to men. The study therefore concludes that Lubukusu compliments are formulaic, context-sensitive and serve an important role in face management. The findings contribute to scholarship in pragmatics, sociolinguistics, and politeness theory while offering practical insights for educators, policymakers, and learners of Lubukusu A compliment is a speech act that explicitly or implicitly attributes credit to someone other than the speaker for some good which is positively valued. Compliments are among the most common speech acts that facilitate interaction by fostering solidarity, reducing social distance, and promoting harmony. Context plays a pivotal role in the interpretation of the role of a compliment this means that one compliment can be used as a token of appreciation in one context but in another it is interpreted as Face Threatening Act. This study investigated the role of pragmatic contexts specifically gender in the use of compliments among Lubukusu speakers in Bungoma County. The study adopted an ethnographic approach using purposive and simple random sampling to select respondents. Data was collected through field notes and audio recordings, yielding 200 naturally occurring compliments. The analysis was guided by Brown and Levinson’s Politeness and Austin’s Speech Act theories. Findings revealed that Lubukusu compliments relied on a restricted set of lexical items with adjectives being the most dominant followed by adverbs, nouns and verbs. The study also noted that women tended to use longer and more elaborate compliment structures compared to men. The study therefore concludes that Lubukusu compliments are formulaic, context-sensitive and serve an important role in face management. The findings contribute to scholarship in pragmatics, sociolinguistics, and politeness theory while offering practical insights for educators, policymakers, and learners of Lubukusu Thu, 01 Jan 2026 00:00:00 GMT http://41.89.205.12/handle/123456789/2880 2026-01-01T00:00:00Z http://41.89.205.12/handle/123456789/2878 Effects of adaptation to rainfall variability on livelihood vulnerability of crop farming households in semi-arid lands: a case of Kitui south sub-county, Kenya Mwatu, Morris Rainfall variability has adverse effects on livelihoods of rain-fed crop farming households. However, the role of adaptation in reducing this vulnerability has not been well documented. The objective of this study was to contribute to understanding the effects of adaptation to rainfall variability on households’ livelihood vulnerability. A questionnaire was used to collect household data for analysis. Livelihood Vulnerability Index (LVI) was calculated for each household. Adaptation strategies to rainfall variability used by the households in the study area were identified and regression analysis, 𝐿𝑉𝐼=𝛽0+𝛽1+𝛽2+......+ε,used to establish significance of the adaptation to rainfall variability on households’ livelihood vulnerability. The study established that despite households using many adaptation strategies, this did not contribute significantly to reduction of their levels of livelihood vulnerability (p=0.2076). The study concludes that differences in livelihood vulnerability among households in the study area can be attributed to variations in socio-economic factors and therefore adaptation alone is not sufficient in reducing households’ vulnerability to rainfall variability. The study recommends the need of addressing socio-economic factors which contribute to high levels of LVI among households as intervention measures to effects of rainfall variability in dry lands. Rainfall variability has adverse effects on livelihoods of rain-fed crop farming households. However, the role of adaptation in reducing this vulnerability has not been well documented. The objective of this study was to contribute to understanding the effects of adaptation to rainfall variability on households’ livelihood vulnerability. A questionnaire was used to collect household data for analysis. Livelihood Vulnerability Index (LVI) was calculated for each household. Adaptation strategies to rainfall variability used by the households in the study area were identified and regression analysis, 𝐿𝑉𝐼=𝛽0+𝛽1+𝛽2+......+ε,used to establish significance of the adaptation to rainfall variability on households’ livelihood vulnerability. The study established that despite households using many adaptation strategies, this did not contribute significantly to reduction of their levels of livelihood vulnerability (p=0.2076). The study concludes that differences in livelihood vulnerability among households in the study area can be attributed to variations in socio-economic factors and therefore adaptation alone is not sufficient in reducing households’ vulnerability to rainfall variability. The study recommends the need of addressing socio-economic factors which contribute to high levels of LVI among households as intervention measures to effects of rainfall variability in dry lands. Thu, 01 Jan 2026 00:00:00 GMT http://41.89.205.12/handle/123456789/2878 2026-01-01T00:00:00Z http://41.89.205.12/handle/123456789/2876 ACADEMIC WRITING AND PUBLICATION SKILLS ONSARIGO, DR. THOMAS GISEMBA; OCHIENG', DR. ROBERT ONYANGO; OGARO, DR. GLADYS NYAIBURI This book is designed to equip both undergraduate and postgraduate students with the essential knowledge and practical skills required for advanced academic writing and scholarly publication. It offers a comprehensive guide to the writing and publishing process for academic works such as research papers, theses, books, and project reports. The book covers critical elements of academic writing, including topic selection, outline development, drafting, reviewing, and editing. It also explores key writing approaches and referencing systems, such as logical argumentation, descriptive and narrative styles, citation and referencing techniques, and the effective presentation of statistical information. The purpose of this book is to help students transform their research into high-quality, publishable academic outputs. It aims to guide learners through the processes of drafting, editing, and revising their work by incorporating instructor and peer feedback. Additionally, the book prepares both undergraduate and postgraduate candidates to write their project reports and dissertations in a clear, organized, and professional manner. This book is designed to equip both undergraduate and postgraduate students with the essential knowledge and practical skills required for advanced academic writing and scholarly publication. It offers a comprehensive guide to the writing and publishing process for academic works such as research papers, theses, books, and project reports. The book covers critical elements of academic writing, including topic selection, outline development, drafting, reviewing, and editing. It also explores key writing approaches and referencing systems, such as logical argumentation, descriptive and narrative styles, citation and referencing techniques, and the effective presentation of statistical information. The purpose of this book is to help students transform their research into high-quality, publishable academic outputs. It aims to guide learners through the processes of drafting, editing, and revising their work by incorporating instructor and peer feedback. Additionally, the book prepares both undergraduate and postgraduate candidates to write their project reports and dissertations in a clear, organized, and professional manner. Wed, 01 Jan 2025 00:00:00 GMT http://41.89.205.12/handle/123456789/2876 2025-01-01T00:00:00Z