Research Papers

Repositioning Public Health Officers in Kenya’s Devolved Health System: A Policy Analysis to Strengthen Primary Health Care and Advance Universal Health Coverage

2026-07-22T07:05:39Z

Repositioning Public Health Officers in Kenya’s Devolved Health System: A Policy Analysis to Strengthen Primary Health Care and Advance Universal Health Coverage Okedi, William Nyabola Health systems in low- and middle-income countries are prioritizing primary health care (PHC) to advance universal health coverage (UHC) and health security. In Kenya, devolution has restructured governance and service delivery, creating both opportunities and coordination challenges. Within this context, Public Health Officers (PHOs)—key to environmental health, disease prevention, and health promotion—remain insufficiently defined and underutilized. This study examines the policy and institutional factors shaping the positioning of PHOs in Kenya’s devolved health system Health systems in low- and middle-income countries are prioritizing primary health care (PHC) to advance universal health coverage (UHC) and health security. In Kenya, devolution has restructured governance and service delivery, creating both opportunities and coordination challenges. Within this context, Public Health Officers (PHOs)—key to environmental health, disease prevention, and health promotion—remain insufficiently defined and underutilized. This study examines the policy and institutional factors shaping the positioning of PHOs in Kenya’s devolved health system

Selections of Karl Heinrich Marx Views on Religion in View of Paul Nthenge Mackenzie Shakahola Cult

2026-07-22T07:03:15Z

Selections of Karl Heinrich Marx Views on Religion in View of Paul Nthenge Mackenzie Shakahola Cult Prof. Rev. Manya, Wandefu Stephen; Dr. Osabwa, Wycliffe The 2023 Shakahola tragedy involving Paul Nthenge Mackenzie, whose followers died through starvation in Kilifi County, Kenya, raises urgent questions about the relationship between religion, social vulnerability, and authority. This paper applies Karl Marx’s theory of religion; particularly the notion of religion as the “opium of the people” to analyze how religious belief can function simultaneously as a response to suffering and a mechanism of control. Rather than treating the case solely as an example of “cult behavior,” the study situates it within broader socio-economic conditions that make individuals susceptible to religious manipulation. In the Mackenzie situation, many people rushed to join this starving religious group claiming that it was their religious duty. Notably, Pastor Nthenge and his followers displayed quasi-religious beliefs akin to Cults. For instance, Pastor Nthenge had isolated over 200 adults and children from their friends and family and led them to the expansive Shakahola forest in Lamu, Kenya, for prayers and intensive fasting that led to death. Thus, the cultic nature of his teachings, which did not permit any scepticism or questioning lest one got punished, required inordinate sacrifices. Fasting and money from the followers were demanded, with the victims being closely controlled in a way that is not common with most conventional religious groups. Pursuant to these events, one would want to inquire on how Pastor Nthenge’s imaginary religious actions echo the selected thoughts of the 19th-century German philosopher Karl Marx’s understanding of religion. Instructively, Marx viewed religion as "the soul of soulless conditions" or the "opium of the people". Accordingly, religion in this world of exploitation is an expression of distress and at the same time a protest against the real distress as with the people proselytized by Pastor Nthenge. In other words, Marx saw religion continuing to survive because of oppressive social conditions of the people. This paper consequently examines the emerging theoretical nexus between Pastor Nthenge’s view of religion, and Marx’s perspectives on religion as the opium of the masses. Through a qualitative desk review of emerging reports and scholarly literature, the paper argues that the Shakahola phenomenon reflects both Marx’s insight into religion as an expression of distress and the dangers of its instrumentalization by charismatic leaders. The study concludes by engaging counter-arguments that emphasize religion’s positive social functions, thereby offering a balanced and critical perspective. The 2023 Shakahola tragedy involving Paul Nthenge Mackenzie, whose followers died through starvation in Kilifi County, Kenya, raises urgent questions about the relationship between religion, social vulnerability, and authority. This paper applies Karl Marx’s theory of religion; particularly the notion of religion as the “opium of the people” to analyze how religious belief can function simultaneously as a response to suffering and a mechanism of control. Rather than treating the case solely as an example of “cult behavior,” the study situates it within broader socio-economic conditions that make individuals susceptible to religious manipulation. In the Mackenzie situation, many people rushed to join this starving religious group claiming that it was their religious duty. Notably, Pastor Nthenge and his followers displayed quasi-religious beliefs akin to Cults. For instance, Pastor Nthenge had isolated over 200 adults and children from their friends and family and led them to the expansive Shakahola forest in Lamu, Kenya, for prayers and intensive fasting that led to death. Thus, the cultic nature of his teachings, which did not permit any scepticism or questioning lest one got punished, required inordinate sacrifices. Fasting and money from the followers were demanded, with the victims being closely controlled in a way that is not common with most conventional religious groups. Pursuant to these events, one would want to inquire on how Pastor Nthenge’s imaginary religious actions echo the selected thoughts of the 19th-century German philosopher Karl Marx’s understanding of religion. Instructively, Marx viewed religion as "the soul of soulless conditions" or the "opium of the people". Accordingly, religion in this world of exploitation is an expression of distress and at the same time a protest against the real distress as with the people proselytized by Pastor Nthenge. In other words, Marx saw religion continuing to survive because of oppressive social conditions of the people. This paper consequently examines the emerging theoretical nexus between Pastor Nthenge’s view of religion, and Marx’s perspectives on religion as the opium of the masses. Through a qualitative desk review of emerging reports and scholarly literature, the paper argues that the Shakahola phenomenon reflects both Marx’s insight into religion as an expression of distress and the dangers of its instrumentalization by charismatic leaders. The study concludes by engaging counter-arguments that emphasize religion’s positive social functions, thereby offering a balanced and critical perspective.

Community Radio and Development Communication in Urban Informal Settlements: Evidence from Pamoja FM in Kibera, Nairobi

2026-07-22T06:52:32Z

Community Radio and Development Communication in Urban Informal Settlements: Evidence from Pamoja FM in Kibera, Nairobi Manje, Dr. Isaac Community radio is widely recognized as a participatory medium capable of amplifying marginalized voices and supporting grassroots development. However, empirical evidence on how community radio operationalizes development communication in urban informal settlements remains limited. This study examines the messages, radio programmes, and community initiatives of Pamoja FM that are focused on development. Pamoja FM is a community radio station serving Kibera, Nairobi's largest informal settlement. Guided by participatory communication and social capital perspectives, the study adopts a qualitative case study design, drawing on in-depth interviews with station staff, focus group discussions with regular listeners, and documentary analysis. The findings show that Pamoja FM integrates development communication through participatory programming, strategic partnerships with community-based organizations, and audience-driven initiatives addressing health, economic empowerment, governance, gender equality, youth engagement, and social cohesion. Programmes such as Tuamke Pamoja, Mwanamke Mwangaza, and Pass the Mic function as platforms for dialogue, mobilization, and collective problem solving. While listeners report increased awareness, motivation, and community engagement, the station's developmental potential is constrained by financial limitations, infrastructural challenges, and regulatory pressures. The study contributes to scholarship on community radio and development communication by demonstrating how locally embedded media practices foster social capital and participatory development in urban slum contexts. Community radio is widely recognized as a participatory medium capable of amplifying marginalized voices and supporting grassroots development. However, empirical evidence on how community radio operationalizes development communication in urban informal settlements remains limited. This study examines the messages, radio programmes, and community initiatives of Pamoja FM that are focused on development. Pamoja FM is a community radio station serving Kibera, Nairobi's largest informal settlement. Guided by participatory communication and social capital perspectives, the study adopts a qualitative case study design, drawing on in-depth interviews with station staff, focus group discussions with regular listeners, and documentary analysis. The findings show that Pamoja FM integrates development communication through participatory programming, strategic partnerships with community-based organizations, and audience-driven initiatives addressing health, economic empowerment, governance, gender equality, youth engagement, and social cohesion. Programmes such as Tuamke Pamoja, Mwanamke Mwangaza, and Pass the Mic function as platforms for dialogue, mobilization, and collective problem solving. While listeners report increased awareness, motivation, and community engagement, the station's developmental potential is constrained by financial limitations, infrastructural challenges, and regulatory pressures. The study contributes to scholarship on community radio and development communication by demonstrating how locally embedded media practices foster social capital and participatory development in urban slum contexts.

Sustainable Digital Entrepreneurship and Its Environmental and Social Value Impact in Western Kenya

2026-07-22T06:51:10Z

Sustainable Digital Entrepreneurship and Its Environmental and Social Value Impact in Western Kenya Omoga, Dr. Charles Owuor; Ongang’a, Dr. Peter Odhiambo; Kosgei, Dr. Nehemiah; Mengwa, Dr. Victor his research examines the structural characteristics of Sustainable Digital Entrepreneurship (SDE) business models, the deconstruction of digital technology configurations, and the assessment of stakeholders' ecosystem in the context of generating a dual environment and social value in Western Kenya. A mixed methods research design was used in which the data collected in the quantitative phase (a snowball sample of sustainable digital entrepreneurs = 30) were triangulated with the qualitative data obtained in the second phase of the study using semi-structured interviews = 18), analysed using NVivo -14. Descriptive results show that the founding of SDEs is mainly driven by the personal ethical values of entrepreneurs (85%). Low-barrier digital tools were found to be the key enabling technologies for localised operations, having the highest value-creation impact score at 4.8/5.0. A strong positive correlation and significance at p<0.01 are confirmed through inferential statistical analysis between the variables active sustainability tracking and overall business performance. In addition, the validated conceptual model shows that digital capabilities strongly mediate the link between SDE and value creation (r=0.61); community engagement has a strong influence on this link (r=0.55); and local institutional support also plays a strong role in this link (r=0.50). From the qualitative side, there were sharp structural conflicts: high infrastructure costs and access to impact-first, which makes it always necessary to balance financial survival with mission execution. The strategic implications of the study are that in rural African ecosystems, the techno architectures that have been built with less investment are better than those built with more, and that they are more accessible than they are capital-intensive. The results point to the need for policy and institutional measures at the local level that are conducive to a green digital economy and that provide new and specific funding mechanisms with a primary focus on impact. his research examines the structural characteristics of Sustainable Digital Entrepreneurship (SDE) business models, the deconstruction of digital technology configurations, and the assessment of stakeholders' ecosystem in the context of generating a dual environment and social value in Western Kenya. A mixed methods research design was used in which the data collected in the quantitative phase (a snowball sample of sustainable digital entrepreneurs = 30) were triangulated with the qualitative data obtained in the second phase of the study using semi-structured interviews = 18), analysed using NVivo -14. Descriptive results show that the founding of SDEs is mainly driven by the personal ethical values of entrepreneurs (85%). Low-barrier digital tools were found to be the key enabling technologies for localised operations, having the highest value-creation impact score at 4.8/5.0. A strong positive correlation and significance at p<0.01 are confirmed through inferential statistical analysis between the variables active sustainability tracking and overall business performance. In addition, the validated conceptual model shows that digital capabilities strongly mediate the link between SDE and value creation (r=0.61); community engagement has a strong influence on this link (r=0.55); and local institutional support also plays a strong role in this link (r=0.50). From the qualitative side, there were sharp structural conflicts: high infrastructure costs and access to impact-first, which makes it always necessary to balance financial survival with mission execution. The strategic implications of the study are that in rural African ecosystems, the techno architectures that have been built with less investment are better than those built with more, and that they are more accessible than they are capital-intensive. The results point to the need for policy and institutional measures at the local level that are conducive to a green digital economy and that provide new and specific funding mechanisms with a primary focus on impact.